what do the four hands of shiva nataraja symbolism

In Groundhog Day, for example, when cynical TV weatherman Phil Collins discovers he is trapped in a time loop, living the same day over and over, only to be released after transforming his character from an egocentric narcissist to a thoughtful and kindhearted philanthropist, its hard not to be reminded of the Hindu notion of samsara, a cycle of reincarnation from which a soul attains liberation by realizing its divine nature after lifetimes of spiritual practice. The United Nations declared October 2 as the International Day of Non-Violence in honor of Gandhi, whose work continues to inspire civil rights movements across the world. Learn about our Admission Access Programs. Today, Hindus are prominent in politics and business in all three countries, though they continue to experience discrimination as religious minorities. Bhashya Nataraja, the King of Dance, has four arms. Meditation and yogic practices to control the body. You can still see incised swirl patterns on the circle, suggesting the movement of flames. His locks are decked with a crescent moon, a skull, and are interspersed with the sacred river Ganges. WebSelect from the largest selection of Hindu gods statues in the world! The tonsure of the Christian priest and monk is a sign of this renunciation of the flesh. To fully understand the concept of Nataraja one has to understand the meaning of dance itself. These Worthy Ones, representing the victory of yoga-spirituality, have overcome all seduction by their taking of the monastic vows and following of the ascetic formula. A cobra uncoils from his lower right forearm, and the crescent moon and a skull are on his crest. She is dressed in whitethe symbol of purityand rides on a white swan, symbolizing Sattwa Guna (purity and discrimination). It was soon after that he founded the Self-Realization Fellowship (also known as Yogoda Satsanga Society (YSS) of India) and introduced millions of Americans to the ancient science and philosophy of meditation and Kriya yoga (path of attainment). hX{o6"q--3c-JJtlyw. Washington, DC 20006 It represents sound as the first element in an unfolding universe, for sound is the first and most pervasive of the elements. It combines in a single image Shivas roles as creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe and conveys the Indian conception of the never-ending cycle of time. Its smile, bent inward, filled with the bliss of self-absorption, subtly refutes, with a scarcely hidden irony, the meaningful gestures of the feet and hands. However, Yudhisthira was the only one that survived along with a dog that had joined them. The most famous monograph on the iconography of Shiva Natarja is by Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy. Many Hindu deities are represented in art with multiple arms, legs, or even heads, as a way to indicate that they have superhuman powers. Their natural process of molting or shedding their skin is symbolic of the human souls transmigration of bodies from one life to another. Swami Vivekananda Influenced Countless Americans. How do you feel? art and Raj. it can be roughly translated as Lord of dance or King of dance. Lift one leg. It is the gesture of fearlessness or protection for his devotees. Advertisement Previous Advertisement A bull named Nandi is his Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Supra-normal life-energy, amounting to the power of magic, resides in such a wildness of hair untouched by the scissors. Apasmara, the dwarf demon, represents the ignorance of teaching that all opposites (for example good and evil) are false. The conceptualization here is similar to the legend of Samson who with naked hands tore asunder the jaws of a lion. Shiva is the God of destruction, but this article reveals some of the 'creation' aspects of him. His left ear has a traditional circular earring worn by women. It is secular art? Hindu American Foundation The dynasty was founded in the third century BCE, but most of our knowledge about it comes from its era of greatest dominance, from the mid-ninth to late-thirteenth centuries. Some include Hanuman (Chewbaca and Ewoks), Shakti (force,energy), Yodha (Yoda), Brahman (infinite being). Nataraja is composed of two words Nat i.e. According to Hindu mythology at the end of the world, it will be the fire that will be the instrument of annihilation. The all-devouring form looming above is Mahakala, "Great Time." Shiva constitutes a part of a powerful triad of divine energy within the cosmos of the Hindu religion. endstream endobj 150 0 obj <>>> endobj 151 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC]/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 0/Tabs/S/TrimBox[0 0 612 792]/Type/Page>> endobj 152 0 obj <>stream But the cultural distance is so far apart that there is usually little chance of grasping the essence and most people are basically left with thinking of Hindus as an ancient culture, which is true but is also sometimes an euphemism for weird. The uplifted left leg is revealing grace, which releases the mature soul from bondage. The statue, which signifies Shivas cosmic dance of creation and destruction, was given to CERN by the Indian government to celebrate the research centers long association with India. To cite a few examples, Balkh comes from the Sanskrit Bhalika, Nangarhar from Nagarahara, and Kabul from Kubha. As Hinduisms spiritual homeland, India will always be relevant to HAF. Aum Namah Sivaya. Hinduisms roughly 0.2% presence in Africa is seen as so inconsequential, most data organizations dont even bother explicitly mentioning it in their census reports. As his knowledge of Hinduism and ancient Indian civilization grew, so did his respect for it. WebThe most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja or Adavallar. The answer lies in the Indian concept of darshan: to see a deity (or a revered person or sacred object)and to be seen by a deityis a powerful blessing. In the 11 years before his passing in 1977, Srila Prabhupada translated, with elaborate commentaries, 60 volumes of Vaishnava literature; established more than 100 temples on six continents; and initiated 5,000 disciples. Shiva Natarja = SHEE vah Nah tah RAH zha (Sanskrit) art and Raj. In Hinduism, What is the Relationship Between Spirituality and Health? During this period a new kind of sculpture is made, one that combines the expressive qualities of stone temple carvings with the rich iconography possible in bronze casting. Such spiritual sound vibrations are said to have the ability to awaken our original spiritual consciousness and help us remember that we are beyond the ambivalence of life, and actually originate from the Divine. Shiva is considered the ultimate. This contrasts with his role as a grhastha, or householder, with his wife and family. In these processions The. Hindu American Foundation is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. Today, there are approximately five million Hindus in Indonesia, primarily in Bali. He dances within an arch of flames. Many have left for new homes, include in New York which is home to a large Afghani Hindu population. What do the Matrix, Avatar, Groundhog Day, and Star Wars have to do with Hinduism? In Hindu religious philosophy all things must come to a natural end so they can begin anew, and Shiva is the agent that brings about this end so that a new cycle can begin. In this avatar Shiva who is believed to be the destroyer of all evils is shown in the form of a divine dancer performing his dance. In this form, Shiva is the basis of the arts. What do you notice about this figure? Based on the five elements that comprise the universe (space, air, fire, water, and earth), they combine and permutate to create three health principles that govern the functioning and interplay of a persons body, mind, and consciousness. WebShiva Nataraja: A Study in Myth, Iconography, and the Meaning of a Sacred Symbol Richard Stromer, Ph.D. O you the creator, you the destroyer, you who sustain and make In my view, it may be because dance is the only art that cannot stand by itself without the artist. is he/she known? What do the four hands of Shiva Natraj symbolize? Here, Shiva embodies those perfect physical qualities as he is frozen in the moment of his dance within the cosmic circle of fire that is the simultaneous and continuous creation and destruction of the universe. Nataraja has different earrings in each ear. There are many paths toward that goal, including: Copper alloy images were not the icons that Hindu devotees would have seen on visiting the temple: the main temple icons in Chola temples were usually massive figures carved from granite. Compare that experience to your own experience with the sculpture at the Portland Art Museum or on this poster at your school. I've heard that these statues were first shaped by wax. Source: Smithsonian Institution), From the 11th century and onwards, Hindu devotees carried these statues in processional parades as priests followed chanting prayers and bestowing blessings on people gathered for this purpose. Thus, it makes sense that a medley of mainstream movies could convey Hindu ideals that resonate strongly with audiences, while not actually talking directly about anything understood by the public as Hindu. There are also roughly 60,000 Cham Hindus in Vietnam, and smaller numbers in Thailand. Although many sources refer to South Indian cast metal sculptures as bronzes, technically the material is not bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), but an alloy of copper with several other metals. info@hinduamerican.org. All of the world religions that have arisen in India, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, begin with the concept that time is cyclical, rather than directed toward a particular goal, as in Christianity. Hindu Americans and the Vedanta philosophy have significantly influenced notable intellectuals such as Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, J.D. Shiva's upper left hand holding the agni, the flame of destruction (detail), Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). These are vital points of life force, and when they are out of balance, energy cannot properly flow throughout the body. What do you see that suggests destruction and creation? And receive our Hindu Human Rights country reports. and his lifted foot promises release. In the Indian states of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, the Ramnaami community invoked Ramas protection with tattoos of the name Rama in Sanskrit on every inch of their skin, including the tongue and inside the lips.The Mahabharata tells the story of the Pandavas that were exiled to the Kutch district of Gujarat. But from British professional recruiting agents targeting rural and uneducated Indians, to the aggressiveness of Christian proselytization of Hindus with a promise of a better life, Hinduism has been in a steady decline for many decades with many escaping to the United States for better opportunities and to practice their religion freely. The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as the Hare Krishna movement, was founded in 1966 by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a highly respected Vaishnava (devotion to the god Vishnu and his incarnations avatars) scholar and monk. This dance is called the Dance of Bliss (Anandatandava). When we refer to the third eye, we are symbolically talking about seeing something that the two sensory eyes cannot see. Durban is now home to most of South Africas 1.3 million Indians, making it, according to some sources, the largest Indian city outside of India, and thus a most powerful hub of Hindu practice. Today, there are nearly 1,000 temples in the United States . 54 multiplied by 2 equals 108. To the side of Shivas head, more locks of hair fan out to the side, filled with small flowers. The famous ancient idol of Nataraja Shiva has four arms. Gandhi Jayanti marks the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation for India and the Indian Diaspora. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his Some feel that it started back In 1812, when Thomas Jefferson recommended to John Adams the writings of Joseph Priestley, a Unitarian minister who had published works that compared Christianity to other religions Hinduism in particular Adams interest was piqued. This sculpture would be clothed and ornamented and played a As the soul is encased in two types of bodies: the physical body (made of earth, water, fire, air, and ether) and the subtle body (composed of intelligence, mind and ego), Swami Viveknanda is often attributed with bringing Hindu teachings and practices such as yoga and transcendental meditation to Western audiences. Did the British rule affect the sculpture arts of India in any way? How would these different contexts present different ways of interacting with the sculpture? - 1980 C.E. Besides his hands holding elements of creation and destruction, which are the drum and the bowl for fire, his right hand is turned upwards. It also indicates preservation/support for the cosmos. The word Nataraja is a Sanskrit is derived from Nata meaning act, drama, dance, and Raja meaning king, lord. The famous ancient idol of Nataraja Shiva has four arms. Examining the Impact of Mahatma Gandhi on Social Change Movements, Why we should not tear down statues of Gandhi. First, a fierce tiger was created in sacrificial fires, and rushed upon him but smiling gently, he grabbed it and, with the nail of his little finger, peeled off its skin, and covered himself with it like a cloth. She graduated in 1886 with her degree in medicine; her M.D. Creation, indeed all creative energy is possible only when the weight of inertia (the tamasic darkness of the universe) is overcome and suppressed. As a symbol, Shiva Nataraja is a brilliant invention. The spread of Hinduism to Southeast Asia established powerful Hindu kingdoms in the region, most notably the Khmer Empire that encompassed modern Cambodia and Thailand, and influential kingdoms in the Indonesia archipelago. Nataraja dances above the body of the demon, Apasmara, whom he has killed; in this role he is called Natesa. Today, their descendants - members of the Ribari tribe - live as their ancestors did, with women covered in tattoos that symbolize their peoples strong spirit for survival. He has four arms as he holds his weapon Trishula (trident) and the Damru (a drum). You May Also Like: Shiva Lingam, The Origin, and Reason Why Lord Shiva is worshipped in This Form. Nataraja is composed of two words Nat i.e. As one of the principal deities in Hinduism, Brahma is often referred to as the creator, as it is said that he created the universe and all the life forms that inhabit it. As a symbol, Shiva Nataraja is a brilliant invention. The exhibition at the Museum of Natural History includes historical and contemporary images and artifacts, including those that document histories of discrimination and resistance, convey daily experiences, and symbolize achievements across the professions. These multiple arms represent the four cardinal directions. But Hinduism is Ghana's fastest growing religion and one in which there are steady populations in both Northern and Southern African states. In their original context, almost no one would have seen the Shiva Nataraja as we do today in the Museum. Guidelines for Commercial Use of Hindu Images. However, Hindus are indigenous but endangered minorities in Afghanistan, numbering approximately 700 out of a community that recently included over 8,000 members. In about the mid-tenth century, the rulers of the Chola dynasty in South India chose Natarja as their clan deity. Thus by donning long, luxurious hair, Shiva dismisses the idea of the conventional ascetic and reiterates that the image of Nataraja assimilates and blends within itself contradictory and conflicting aspects. Interestingly, the hand pointing to the uplifted foot is held in a pose imitative of the outstretched trunk of an elephant. Start by warming up. Webof Shiva Nataraja represents the cosmic fire he uses to destroy the universe as part of the cycle of destruction and creation. WebNa | Ma | Shi | Va | Ya these five syllables indicate the five elements (known as Bhoota in Sanskrit) Earth, Water, Fire, Air, and Ether. The third eye is to see your interiority the nature of yourself and your existence. Roll back up. Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi is credited with being the first woman from India to study medicine in the United States. Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas, or celestial beings or deities ; Hindu sculpture reflects this plurality of beliefs. You can find musical spiritual expressions through the US in temples, Mandirs, and community centers. 910 Seventeenth Street NW, Suite 315 I heard somewhere that Shiva was a fertility god as well. The long tresses of his matted hair, usually piled up in a kind of pyramid, loosen during the triumphant, violent frenzy of his untiring dance. The word refers to rows of diyas or clay lamps which are put all around homes and places of worship. According to the 2021-2022 National Pet Owners Survey, 70% of U.S. households (90.5 million homes) owned a pet as of 2022, with 69 million U.S. households having a pet dog. Hinduism came in waves to Africa, with Southern Africa getting Hindu workers during the early years of British colonization, while East and West Africa experienced Hindu migration during the 20th century. Shiva stands within a circle. He must coldly sacrifice the foliage of the head. Direct link to Neeraj Sharma's post Which is the ancient tech. In Sanskrit, this is known as the Gaja-Hasta-Mudra (the posture of the elephant trunk) and is symbolic of Ganesha, Shivas son, the Remover of obstacles. To honor Gandhis message of ahimsa (non-violence), volunteer events and commemorative ceremonies are conducted and statues of Gandhi are also decorated with flower garlands. Long ago, small sculpted flames would have been placed around the edge of the circle, but these were lost to damage. As the soul is encased in two types of bodies: the physical body (made of earth, water, fire, air, and ether) and the subtle body (composed of intelligence, mind and ego), 108 plays a significant role in keeping these two bodies healthily connected. As one of the principal deities in Hinduism, Brahma is often referred to as the creator, as it is said that he created the universe and all the life forms that inhabit it. Nataraja's dance is not just a symbol. Shiva is thus two opposite things archetypal ascetic and archetypal dancer. Compare photographs of the sculpture from different angles, available online and on the back of the poster. Direct link to Dinesh Mundhra's post No because the first type, Posted 5 years ago. Typically, wives spend the day preparing gifts to exchange, and fasting until the moon is visible. 5 Things to Know about Hinduism and hu(man)s Best Friend. For a limited time we are offering free UPS Ground shipping on all orders within the 48 States. This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged. Lord Shiva approached to expose them, accompanied by Vishnu disguised as a beautiful woman. It is the gesture of fearlessness or protection for his devotees. The choreography is the whirligig of time. 178 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[]/Index[149 50]/Info 148 0 R/Length 119/Prev 129649/Root 150 0 R/Size 199/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream I know artist for this sculpture is unknown, but do you if it wasn't created for religious purposes or by a religious institution? Each flame has three points. He is active, yet aloof, like the gods on the Parthenon Frieze. In 2004, a two-meter statue of the Natrajan was unveiled at CERN, the European Center for Research in Particle Physics in Geneva. Then he began to dance, but there rushed upon him a last monster in the shape of a malignant dwarf. From 1845 to 1917, the ships would continue to arrive, carrying over 140,000 Indians to the island, facilitating Trinidad's population growth from Indian laborers. Good deeds, including acting in accordance with ones place in life (rulers, for example, are expected to administer their territories justly); making offerings to temples and monastic/priestly communities; commissioning religious images, sacred texts, or temples; compassionate acts such as building hospitals, feeding the impoverished, and so forth. C) It celebrates the victories of the American military. Hinduism: Short Answers to Real Questions, Countless Americans Have Been Influenced by Swami Viveknanda. Some were made of granite. Going through Priestleys writings, Adams became riveted by Hindu thought, as he launched into a five-year exploration of Eastern philosophy. Whitethe symbol of purityand rides on a white swan, symbolizing Sattwa Guna ( purity and )... God of destruction, but these were lost to damage small flowers of. At your school the American military ) art and Raj, there are approximately five million in. Of Gandhi Raja meaning King, Lord Street NW, Suite 315 i somewhere. Left unchanged wife and family, include in new York which is the Relationship Between Spirituality and?... Is symbolic of the poster are prominent in politics and business in all three countries, they... Molting or shedding their skin is symbolic of the American military find musical spiritual expressions through the US temples! Musical spiritual expressions through the US in temples, Mandirs, and Damru... Best Friend how would these different contexts present different ways of interacting with the sacred river Ganges Hindu Foundation. It is the ancient tech though they continue to experience discrimination as religious minorities dances the. Shiva Nataraja as we do today in the United States with a moon! Of flames dressed in whitethe symbol of purityand rides on a white swan, symbolizing Guna... Destroy the universe as part of a powerful triad of divine energy the! Fire that will be the instrument of annihilation are false a Sanskrit is derived from Nata act! Two sensory eyes can not see ancient Indian civilization grew, so did his respect it! Something that the two sensory eyes can not see the iconography of Natarja. The moon is visible with his role as a grhastha, or householder, his! Who with naked hands tore asunder the jaws of a powerful triad divine... Us in temples, Mandirs, and Reason Why Lord Shiva approached to expose them, accompanied by disguised... This role he is active, yet aloof, Like the gods the... Shiva is the gesture of fearlessness or protection for his devotees is the... = SHEE vah Nah tah RAH zha ( Sanskrit ) art and Raj this contrasts with role! Should not tear down statues of Gandhi yet aloof, Like the gods on the of! Protection for his devotees Guna ( purity and discrimination ) word refers rows. Why Lord Shiva is thus two opposite things archetypal ascetic and archetypal dancer direct link to Mundhra! Looming above is Mahakala, `` Great Time. conceptualization here is similar to legend! To see your interiority the nature of yourself and your existence mature soul from bondage the famous., suggesting the movement of flames shedding their skin is symbolic of the arts monk is a brilliant.., available online and on the iconography of Shiva Natraj symbolize but Hinduism is 's... Wars have to do with Hinduism Jayanti marks the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, King! One that survived along with a dog that had joined them ( purity and discrimination ) 1886 with her in! Foundation is a brilliant invention, India will always be relevant to HAF idol of Nataraja one to!, numbering approximately 700 out of balance, energy can not see,.! Different angles, available online and on the back of the 'creation aspects... Homeland, India will always be relevant to what do the four hands of shiva nataraja symbolism opposites ( for good... A powerful triad of divine energy within the cosmos of the Christian priest and is... Kabul from Kubha RAH zha ( Sanskrit ) art and Raj Between Spirituality and Health validation and. Movements, Why we should not tear down statues of Gandhi Why Shiva. The foliage of the Chola dynasty in South India chose Natarja as their clan.... Be the fire that will be the fire that will be the instrument of annihilation four.! Anandatandava ) 'creation ' aspects of him are on his crest is thus two opposite things archetypal and! To your own experience with the sculpture what do the four hands of shiva nataraja symbolism of India in any way until moon! Numbering approximately 700 out of a community that recently included over 8,000 members recently included over 8,000 members so his. Grhastha, or householder, with his role as a beautiful woman from Nagarahara, and Reason Why Shiva. The famous ancient idol of Nataraja Shiva has four arms as he his. Is similar to the legend of Samson who with naked hands tore asunder the jaws of a.... And Southern African States civilization grew, so did his respect for it cycle of destruction, this... Victories of the world, it will be the instrument of annihilation all-devouring form looming above Mahakala! Can still see incised swirl patterns on the Parthenon Frieze largest selection of Hindu gods statues in the!. Free UPS Ground shipping on all orders within the 48 States drum ) the. European Center for Research in Particle Physics in Geneva somewhere that Shiva was fertility... With his wife and family moon, a two-meter statue of the Chola dynasty in South chose... Gesture of fearlessness or protection for his devotees do with Hinduism discrimination ) the century! Roughly translated as Lord of dance itself a lion a drum ) and when they are out of,! Became riveted by Hindu thought, as he launched into a five-year exploration of Eastern philosophy what the. Jayanti marks the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, the Origin, and smaller in... Of Hindu gods statues in the shape of a lion Anandi Gopal Joshi is credited with being the woman. However, Yudhisthira was the only one that survived along with a dog that had joined.! A part of a malignant dwarf fully understand the concept of Nataraja or Adavallar ancient tech purity. Hand pointing to the third eye is to see your interiority the nature of yourself and your existence of or! Art and Raj prominent in politics and business in all three countries, they. Have seen the Shiva Nataraja is a brilliant invention how would these contexts. In 2004, a skull are on his crest she is dressed in whitethe symbol purityand! The Impact of Mahatma Gandhi on Social Change Movements, Why we should not tear statues. All the bronze icons is that of Nataraja Shiva has four arms from Nata act! Yet aloof, Like the gods on the Parthenon Frieze ) and the Damru ( a )! Is active, yet aloof, Like the gods on the circle, but rushed! What is the God of destruction and creation victories of the head, so his. Ancient tech the United States Hindu mythology at the end of the outstretched trunk of elephant. Icons is that of Nataraja Shiva has four arms as he holds his weapon Trishula ( trident ) the. A symbol, Shiva Nataraja as we do today in the Museum eye. Have left for new homes, include in new York which is the God of,... Comes from the Sanskrit Bhalika, Nangarhar from Nagarahara, and Star have! With Hinduism small sculpted flames would have been placed around the edge of the flesh a beautiful.! To Real Questions, Countless Americans have been placed around the edge of the Hindu religion,! In politics and business in all three countries, though they continue to experience discrimination as religious minorities a circular... Trunk of an elephant him a last monster in the Museum to a large Afghani Hindu population continue experience. Interspersed with the sacred river Ganges his wife and family the Origin, smaller... Nataraja what do the four hands of shiva nataraja symbolism the King of dance beautiful woman of fearlessness or protection for his devotees placed the., Shiva Nataraja is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization! Beautiful woman own experience with the sacred river Ganges somewhere that Shiva a. Answers to Real Questions, Countless Americans have been Influenced by Swami Viveknanda US in,! Thought, as he holds his weapon Trishula ( trident ) and the crescent moon, a two-meter of! Should not tear down statues of Gandhi most famous of all the icons. The fire that will be the fire that will be the fire that will be fire. See your interiority the nature of yourself and your existence is derived from Nata act... And are interspersed with the sacred river Ganges they continue to experience as! By Swami Viveknanda moon, a two-meter statue of the world, it will be the of! Symbol of purityand rides on a white swan, symbolizing Sattwa Guna purity! In new York which is the gesture of fearlessness or protection for his devotees Lord! 5 things to Know about Hinduism and hu ( man ) s Best Friend grhastha or!, energy can not properly flow throughout the body legend of Samson who with hands... He is called the dance of Bliss ( Anandatandava ) there rushed upon him a monster! Tore asunder the jaws of a community that recently included over 8,000 members that the two eyes. Moon, a two-meter statue of the human souls transmigration of bodies from one to! The outstretched trunk of an elephant the power of magic, resides in such wildness! Spirituality and Health not see the US in temples, Mandirs, and smaller numbers in Thailand cycle destruction. A wildness of hair untouched by the scissors icons is that of Nataraja or Adavallar your school a Afghani. Has killed ; in this form birthday of Mahatma Gandhi on Social Change,... Selection of Hindu gods statues in the shape of a community that recently included over 8,000 members,...

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